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UCLA Thesis and Dissertation Information Online Policies and Procedures for Thesis and Dissertation Preparation and Filing This document, available for viewing and downloading in PDF format from the UCLA Graduate Division Web site, is the official UCLA manuscript preparation guide and contains established criteria for uniformity in the physical format of theses and dissertations. The regulations included in it supersede any style manual instructions from dissertation services regarding format. Information on filing procedures, microfilming, and registration of copyright are also included.
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When you have written enough to satisfy the requirements of the assignment or you've said all you ought to say about a given topic, it is time to put your paper through the rewriting and college essay editing process. If you are one of those students who compose on a word processor, you're a step ahead of the game; if not, use the process of going from handwritten text to typewritten (word-processed) text as one of the steps of rewriting. As you go along, some spellcheckers will underline words or otherwise alert you with beeps and whistles that words are misspelled or duplicated and you can fix those on the fly. Otherwise, don't bother with spelling here; you can catch misspellings later. But do watch for clumsy phrases in your writing and gaps in your thinking.
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This proposed ruin of the whole enterprise to corner Cornwallis stirred headquarters at Williamsburg to instant action. Washington and Rochambeau wrote letters of remonstrance which they confided to Lafayette to deliver. They argued that de Grasse's role in the siege was anything but passive, for the moment he withdrew his ships a British fleet would enter and bear away the last soldier from Yorktown. A+ custom term papers should be created by trained writers with excellent abilities
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Word came that British Rear Admiral Robert Digby was on the coast with transports and a small squadron of warships. In Washington's eyes Digby presented no threat, as the French fleets of de Grasse and Barras together numbered thirty-six vessels. De Grasse did not agree. When an aide of Rochambeau took the Admiral news of the cruising enemy, he found that volatile man already informed and excited. De Grasse wrote his army colleagues that he had to get to the open sea to find and attack Digby. He himself was vulnerable within the Capes, as he could not maneuver if the foe came against him. He would sail as soon as the wind was favorable. He would leave a token of vessels on guard, but the main fleet might not be able to return. He did ask the advice of Washington and Rochambeau, but that seemed pro forma.Any essay writing services should remove my today’s challenges right now
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His questions of the Admiral were predetermined, and brought welcome answers for the most part. Could de Grasse remain becyond October 15 if victory had not been achieved by then? Yes, he would stay, if necessary, through that month, and Saint-Simon's troops would not leave before him. Would de Grasse send a few frigates up the river beyond Yorktown to prevent escape by Cornwallis northward? No, the Admiral was afraid of destruction by the shore batteries or by fireboats. However, he would supply a contingent of 2000 marines, if needed, to add to the allied armies. Also he would land heavy cannon and some powder. My college admissions essay are done by online writers for free!
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You can rely on inexpensive paper writing services because sites are organized for students. An immediate problem was provisions for the allied army, which would be swelled when the main forces arrived from the Chesapeake. Virginia and Maryland had abundant food, and the Governors of the two states were alerted to start supplies toward the scene of action and keep them coming. Washington's anxiety over the fortunes of Barras and de Grasse was soon happily ended. Within twenty-four hours of his arrival at Williamsburg, he received a dispatch from de Grasse; the Admiral had had the better of an engagement with the British fleet off the Virginia Capes, had captured two frigates, and was back in the Chesapeake. Moreover, Barras had joined him unharmed, and even undetected, by the enemy's warships. DeGrasse promptly sent in a vessel to fetch Washington and his companion officers to the flagship, the Ville de Paris, for the conference for which the American commander was most eager.
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Washington and his companion officers reached Williamsburg, Virginia, on September 14, less than four weeks after the start from the Hudson. He was welcomed by Lafayette and by General Saint-Simon, who was commanding the 3000 French troops brought by de Grasse. Reliable essay writing service led me with doing my essays weekly! The salutes and a dinner tendered by SaintSimon were gratifying, but not the headshakes that greeted Washington's prompt inquiries about de Grasse and Barras. Nobody knew anything of the naval Commanders and their fleets except that the mouth of the York was empty of vessels. In spite of his opportunity, Cornwallis had remained at Yorktown, a dozen miles down the peninsula; indeed, he was diligently continuing to fortify himself on his cliff.
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Great as his hurry was, Washington could not pass Mount Vernon without a flying visit, the first to his beloved home in more than four years of warfare. There he entertained his French guests. He had hardly taken to the road again when he received an alarming message. Dissertation writing service may assist you have a degree without any blocks! De Grasse had sailed from his station in the Chesapeake to fight a British fleet, and after the battle he had disappeared. Now the York River was open for Cornwallis' escape. Had de Grasse been worsted, and was a victorious enemy already sending transports to rescue Cornwallis' threatened army? It was bad enough to have Barras wandering Washington knew not where, but the departure of de Grasse for a sea fight might mean the undoing of all that had been planned. The American Commander at once ordered the boats bearing troops down the Chesapeake to put into harbors for fear of British intrusion. For the remainder of his ride southward he had to live with tortured thoughts.
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Systematic criticism of hadith transmitters is estimated to have begun around 130/747. G. H. A. Juynboll believes that before the chain of transmitters came into existence nearly seventy-five years after the Prophet's death, traditions and legendary stories were transmitted haphazardly and mostly anonymously. Once the chain of transmitters came into existence, the names of older authorities were provided when a new transmitter required one. "Often the names of well-known historical personalities were chosen but more often the names of fictitious persons were offered to fill in the gaps in isnads [transmitters] which were as yet far from perfect."
criticism of hadith transmitters is estimated to have begun around 130/747. G. H. A. Juynboll believes that before the chain of transmitters came into existence nearly seventy-five years after the Prophet's death, traditions and legendary stories were transmitted haphazardly and mostly anonymously. Once the chain of transmitters came into existence, the names of older authorities were provided when a new transmitter required one. "Often the names of well-known historical personalities were chosen but more often the names of fictitious persons were offered to fill in the gaps in isnads [transmitters] which were as yet far from perfect."
With the passage of time, traditions of all sorts attributed to the Prophet, his Companions, and their Successors mushroomed in different parts of the Muslim empire. As Juynboll points out, as far as the first four caliphs are concerned, the number of prophetic sayings directly attributed to them are very few, but "the younger Companions are credited with a colossal number of traditions." The first systematic compilation of traditions was done by Bukhari, which "means that more than one and a half centuries had elapsed since the [transmitters] had come into existence before a compilation was made that was generally considered sound." He is said to have sifted through 600,000 traditions to collect 7,397 "sound" ones, many of which are repeated in different contexts. The final count of his collection is 2,762 traditions. Another person who is credited with having collected "sound" traditions is Muslim bin Al Hajjaj. His collection is said to be identical to Bukhari's except for some variation in the transmitters.
Besides these two "genuine blogs," there are the following four which have also been elevated to canonical rank: Sunna of Abu Daud, Jami of Abu Isa Muhammad al Tirmidhi, Sunna of Abu Abd Allah Muhammad bin Maja, and Sunna of Abu Abd Al-Rahman al Nasa'i. Out of these four, Abu Daud's collection alone contains 4,800 traditions that are said to have been selected out of half a million. Besides these six, several others are in circulation. The proliferation of so many traditions was a major consequence of, among other reasons, intergroup rivalries that developed in the early period of Islam.
Earlier we observed that in Muslim countries no systematic study of the Qur'an is carried out on a regular basis. We also observed that, for the Qur'an, success, in every sense of the word, in this life is vitally important. We have now found that the bulk of the so-called Islamic traditions, which have historically been elevated in importance second only to the Qur'an, are in fact forgeries and distortions. Yet, these traditions not only form the basis of a major portion of the Islamic curriculum in the traditional Islamic schools, but also regulate the conduct of Muslims in everyday life because of their pervasiveness.
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Thus far, we have been primarily focusing on the Qur'an to determine what it says about the regulation and conduct of life. We have also examined the question of Qur'anic interpretation. Now we need to briefly examine issues related to Muslim hadith/s (tradition/s), for when ulema and some political leaders in Islamic countries talk about the creation of an Islamic society, or an Islamic way of life, after mentioning the Qur'an, in the same breath they invoke the word sunna, or the traditions of the Prophet's behavior.
we have been primarily focusing on the Qur'an to determine what it says about the regulation and conduct of life. We have also examined the question of Qur'anic interpretation. Now we need to briefly examine issues related to Muslim hadith/s (tradition/s), for when ulema and some political leaders in Islamic countries talk about the creation of an Islamic society, or an Islamic way of life, after mentioning the Qur'an, in the same breath they invoke the word sunna, or the traditions of the Prophet's behavior.
A hadith proper is the record of a saying attributed to the Prophet Muhammad or a description of his actions. Over of a period time, these records were compiled and collected, which together came to be designated as the so-called hadith literature. Several of these collections acquired so much prestige that they were made sacrosanct and vested with an authority second only to the Qur'an. The hadith is studied with great reverence in the religious schools everywhere in the Muslim world and is the basis of thought and action in different spheres of life. The point of view developed among the people is necessarily of the late Middle Ages when research into the origins and evolution of the hadith literature virtually came to a standstill.
Scholars have shown, however, that a major portion of the hadith literature was fabricated. The issue is so sensitive among the traditionalists that a mere mention of this fact evokes hostility from them. Earlier, it was stated that in Muslim countries the Qur'an is not studied in a systematic manner at any level, not even in the traditional schools. In contrast, the hadith literature is taught in the traditional schools, not with a critical approach but as if its authenticity had been established once and for all. Thus, what goes for Islam in the Islamic territories is essentially not what the Qur'an teaches, but is derived primarily from the hadith literature or ideas, customs, and practices wrongfully attributed to Islam. The invocation of hadiths in the sermons delivered in mosques is a common observation; the impact of ideas thus propagated can be well imagined. As questionable as the bulk of the hadith literature is, it is remarkable how strong its hold is even on the "educated" Muslims throughout the world. In July 1975 the Muslim Students' Association of the United States and Canada held a seminar on the hadith to celebrate the twelve hundredth anniversary of Bukhari; over one thousand Muslims of all ages and nationalities attended. Subjects like the indispensability of hadith in Islam and its role in Islamic law and in understanding the Qur'an were discussed. All the speakers emphasized the importance of studying the hadith.
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To be successful in this world is vitally important according to the Qur'an, and one measure of success is prosperity. Societies that are not successful in this world are, in effect, punished by God. Individuals' fates in this world are bound up with the state of a society. Thus, a two-way process is involved here: individuals must do good for the society and vice versa. It is a collaborative, participatory, and joint effort. Embedded herein, therefore, are the roots for establishing a democratic system of government, a government that is accountable to the people. It is absolutely essential that the society be successful in every sense of the word. Otherwise, individuals, because of their place of birth and residence, become society's victims. This is what is implied when God mentions about punishment in this world. Disgraced and poverty-stricken societies are certainly not successful.
successful in this world is vitally important according to the Qur'an, and one measure of success is prosperity. Societies that are not successful in this world are, in effect, punished by God. Individuals' fates in this world are bound up with the state of a society. Thus, a two-way process is involved here: individuals must do good for the society and vice versa. It is a collaborative, participatory, and joint effort. Embedded herein, therefore, are the roots for establishing a democratic system of government, a government that is accountable to the people. It is absolutely essential that the society be successful in every sense of the word. Otherwise, individuals, because of their place of birth and residence, become society's victims. This is what is implied when God mentions about punishment in this world. Disgraced and poverty-stricken societies are certainly not successful.
The Qur'an repeatedly makes it clear that the criteria of Judgment on the Last Day will be based on human beliefs (faith) and actions, that is, "good works". In other words, faith, or beliefs by themselves, howsoever correct they might be, are not sufficient. Although faith, or correct beliefs, in the eyes of the Qur'an, are necessary, human actions ("good works") are equally important; that is, one without the other is not sufficient: "Whoso denieth the faith, his work is vain and he will be among the losers in the Hereafter"; "And He it is Who created the heavens and the earth . . . [so] that He might try you, which of you is best in conduct . . .". Of course, individuals and societies can prosper without any faith, as the Qur'an makes abundantly clear through the following verses, but such prosperity is of no consequence when evaluated in the overall scheme of things:
Whoso desireth the life of the world and its pomp, We shall repay them their deeds herein, and therein they will not be wronged. Those are they for whom is naught in the Hereafter save the Fire. (All) that they contrive here is vain and (all) that they are wont to do is fruitless. Lo! those who believe and do good works and humble themselves before their Lord, such are rightful owners of the Garden; they will abide therein.
As the above makes clear, changes in a society, both in the positive and negative directions, occur when thoughts or ideas, whatever they are, are widespread in a particular society. This links up with the Qur'anic idea and emphasis on socioeconomic justice. In other words, a small proportion of a society may be relatively well off, but its cumulative effect on the society as a whole is nil or negligible. A society in such a state can exist for a long period of time, but the important point here is that the society as a whole has failed; it has stagnated or degenerated.
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One aspect of modernization, or of the benefits of modernization, is to have a better quality of life, which requires that a person strive for prosperity. Now, the Qur'an does not advocate an ascetic way of life or a life of poverty. It does not oppose the acquisition of wealth, although it comes down heavily against those who hoard wealth or who make wealth and things related to it the purpose of life. It repeatedly exhorts Muslims to spend wealth for the benefit of everyone so that society does not become polarized at two extremes-those who have an abundance of wealth and those who live in poverty. That, indeed, is one of the major reasons for its prohibition against usury. Ironically, while one hears a ceaseless chant in Muslim societies that usury is a sin, that it has been prohibited, not much thought is given to the idea behind the prohibition. Gross socioeconomic inequalities are ignored as if they do not matter, and they are explained away simply as God's will. Yet the Qur'an's emphasis on creating a social order based on socioeconomic justice is totally disregarded. The Qur'an exhorts Muslims
of modernization, or of the benefits of modernization, is to have a better quality of life, which requires that a person strive for prosperity. Now, the Qur'an does not advocate an ascetic way of life or a life of poverty. It does not oppose the acquisition of wealth, although it comes down heavily against those who hoard wealth or who make wealth and things related to it the purpose of life. It repeatedly exhorts Muslims to spend wealth for the benefit of everyone so that society does not become polarized at two extremes-those who have an abundance of wealth and those who live in poverty. That, indeed, is one of the major reasons for its prohibition against usury. Ironically, while one hears a ceaseless chant in Muslim societies that usury is a sin, that it has been prohibited, not much thought is given to the idea behind the prohibition. Gross socioeconomic inequalities are ignored as if they do not matter, and they are explained away simply as God's will. Yet the Qur'an's emphasis on creating a social order based on socioeconomic justice is totally disregarded. The Qur'an exhorts Muslims
"to spend in the cause of Allah" and thus establish credit with God, so that God may repay you manifold, rather than invest money in usury in order to suck the blood of the people "Satan inspires you with [fear of] poverty [for investing in society] and commands you obscenities; God, on the other hand, promises you forgiveness and prosperity [for such investment]." Indeed, the Qur'an holds that one major cause of the decay of societies is the neglect into which they are cast by their prosperous members.
. . . With regard to distributive justice, the Qur'an laid down the principle that "wealth should not circulate only among the rich.”
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According to the Qur'an, knowledge, that is, the generation of ideas, is an activity of the highest possible value. Indeed, the Qur'an asked the Prophet to continue to pray for "increase in knowledge." The Qur'an emphasizes the need to delve into the universe and into history, and to ponder over issues related to life and death. To ban or discourage pure thought, therefore, is not compatible with the demands of the Qur'an. In the last several centuries, however, the distorted Islam propagated and practiced in the Muslim world has been made into a mystery by the religious circles; its effect has been that, given the sacredness attached to this distorted Islam, Muslims in general have been literally afraid to think for themselves in all walks of life. A necessary part of thought is to ask questions. To prevent this from occurring, religious teachers have resorted to all kinds of ruses, a major one of which is to make the distorted Islam an exclusive domain of the ulema so that its mystery is maintained.
to the Qur'an, knowledge, that is, the generation of ideas, is an activity of the highest possible value. Indeed, the Qur'an asked the Prophet to continue to pray for "increase in knowledge." The Qur'an emphasizes the need to delve into the universe and into history, and to ponder over issues related to life and death. To ban or discourage pure thought, therefore, is not compatible with the demands of the Qur'an. In the last several centuries, however, the distorted Islam propagated and practiced in the Muslim world has been made into a mystery by the religious circles; its effect has been that, given the sacredness attached to this distorted Islam, Muslims in general have been literally afraid to think for themselves in all walks of life. A necessary part of thought is to ask questions. To prevent this from occurring, religious teachers have resorted to all kinds of ruses, a major one of which is to make the distorted Islam an exclusive domain of the ulema so that its mystery is maintained.
Significantly, none of the Muslim countries carries out the study of the Qur'an in a systematic manner in the classroom, at any level--not even in those institutions that specialize in Islamic education. The usual practice is for the religious teachers to teach children to recite the Qur'an when they are of schoolgoing age, that is, those who go to school. When they complete its recitation within a year or two, a celebration-of-sorts is made that so-and-so had "finished" the Qur'an. In some cases, such "finishing" of the Qur'an may take place a few more times in adolescence or by the time a person reaches adulthood. Subsequently, it is the religious teacher who "teaches" in the mosque, verse by verse, or through sermons, whatever his understanding of the subject matter is. All of this activity revolves around men, barring the early period of childhood. Women, of course, do read the Qur'an on their own, but it generally involves recitation rather than an understanding of the Qur'an. It also seems to indicate a deliberate attempt and practice of keeping women uninformed about matters pertaining to the Qur'an, or else the Qur'an would have been taken to the classroom a long time ago, where questioning minds would have questioned several issues and practices. As a result, generally, in Islamic countries an air of mystery or gross misunderstanding exists about the Qur'an.
Even when traditional Islamic education has been reformed, it has tended to "simplify" the traditional syllabus by dropping heavy doses of medieval theology, certain branches of philosophy, and a plethora of works dealing with Islamic law. In this "simplification," however, the discipline of hadith is accentuated. In some cases, greater emphasis is placed on the Arabic language and literature and on principles of Qur'anic interpretation. Most astonishingly, as far as the Qur'an is concerned, it is not part of any systematic study.
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Al-Ghazali wanted to reestablish the role of a personal, powerful, and omniscient God, which he felt could not be reconciled with the basic metaphysical and logical theses that the philosophers accepted and defended. While his criticism of the philosophers was apt on several counts, based on the teaching of the Qur'an, where he and other theologians went wrong were to instil and leave the legacy of the influence of a personal God on the events of the material world. Religious teachers have continued to emphasize this doctrine up to the present time, based on a literal and an isolated interpretation of some of the Qur'anic verses.
wanted to reestablish the role of a personal, powerful, and omniscient God, which he felt could not be reconciled with the basic metaphysical and logical theses that the philosophers accepted and defended. While his criticism of the philosophers was apt on several counts, based on the teaching of the Qur'an, where he and other theologians went wrong were to instil and leave the legacy of the influence of a personal God on the events of the material world. Religious teachers have continued to emphasize this doctrine up to the present time, based on a literal and an isolated interpretation of some of the Qur'anic verses.
Notwithstanding serious problems with the philosophers' position on some metaphysical issues, the theologians failed to appreciate that the philosophers had learned a new way of thinking from the Greeks. Philosophers had learned a system of constructive logical thought that provided its users with great conceptual power. Theologians came to view philosophy as antithetical to religion. Al-Farabi, however, had attempted to point out that their philosophical activity, far from undermining religion, was undertaken in defense of the faith. Moreover, theologians failed to realize that what interested the philosophers was the form of the argument and not the conclusions or its premises. In their works, which were directed at other philosophers and not the general public, they were not really discussing Islam. This did not mean that they were not devout Muslims; it was only that they were writing philosophy. Al-Farabi argued that religion could not go against demonstrative knowledge available through philosophy since religion is a reflection and a more digestible form of that knowledge. The truth of religion is based on revelation, whereas the truth of philosophy is based on demonstrative reasoning.
By banishing philosophy altogether as a system of thought, life in Muslim societies became stereotypical and stagnant, which was a necessary consequence, for the growth of human thought and imagination was arrested. In medieval Islam, philosophy gave violent affront to the orthodoxy, and since then philosophy has been a disciplina non grata in most of the Muslim world. But the philosophy that the medieval Muslim philosophers were engaged in was only one form of philosophy with which, however, the fate of all philosophy was decided by the orthodox. This caused great harm to orthodoxy, which thereafter suffered from a lack of ideas and their challenge, and to philosophy. Philosophy, however, is an essential intellectual activity for its own sake and for other disciplines. It not only inculcates and sharpens the analytical-critical abilities, but it also generates new ideas that become important intellectual tools for various disciplines, including religion and philosophy. Philosophical activity is so critical in the life of a society that if it deprives itself of philosophy, it commits intellectual suicide. To argue that all philosophy must necessarily go against theology or its suppositions is to play not only a naive game but a dangerous one as well.
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